HISTORY OF
SCIENCE
Compiled by: Ichwan P.Syamsuddin
(Used for personal entertainment)
A. INTRODUCTION
Philosophical thinking is heavily influenced by the environment. But basically a good philosophy in the West, India, and China emerged from a religious nature. In Greece the myth, in India with his book Vedic (Hindu Religion) and in China with Confusiusnya. In Western myth can disappear altogether and the ratio prominent, whereas in Indian philosophy can never escape the parent in this case Hinduism. Division of the periodization of Western philosophy is Ancient times, Middle Ages, Modern era, and the Present. Flow emerging influence on the thinking and philosophy is positivism, Marxism, Existentialism, Phenomenology, Pragmatism, and NeoKantianianisme and Neo-tomisme. The division of periodization is the ancient Chinese philosophy, assimilation era, Neo-Konfusionisme era and modern times. The main theme in Chinese philosophy is a matter of humanity (jen). Periodization divisions of Indian philosophy is the period of the Vedas, epic, sutras, and Scholastic. In Indian philosophy that matters is how people can be friends with the world not to dominate the world. As for the Islamic philosophy there are only two periods, namely Mutakallimin period and the period of Islamic philosophy. For the history of the development of science in the discussion here refers to philosophical thinking in the West.
The period of Greek philosophy is a very important period in the history of human poradaban because at that time there is a change of mindset human myths become more rational. The mindset of those myths is the mindset of the people who rely heavily on myth to menjelaskari natural phenomena,
The mindset change seems simple, but its implications are not simple because during this natural feared and shunned then approached even exploited. man that was once passive in the face of natural phenomena become more proactive and creative, so nature as object of research and assessment. Of the process is then developed from the womb philosophy of science, that eventually we enjoy in the form of technology. Because the period of the development of Greek philosophy is the point to enter the new civilization of mankind.
Thus, the development of science as it is not directly a sudden, it happens gradually, evolutionary. to understand the historical development of science would have to be through the division or classification periodically, for each period show a certain characteristic in the development of science. Development of thinking theoretically always refers to the Greek civilization. Periodization of the development of civilization starts here and ends in contemporary Greece. (Drs.Surajiyo; case 80)
B. Ancient Period (15 BC – 7 S1V)
Basically humans in ancient times is to accept all the events as fact. Though carried out observations, data collection and so on, but they just accept gathering only. Facts only minimally processed, only to find the same problem, the common denominator, and that is perhaps unintentionally, without purpose. If there is any assertion or statement, then the statement is always associated with the gods and mystical. Therefore astronomical observations transformed into astrology. observations made by humans in ancient times, who accept the facts as brute factr or on the face value, suggests that humans in ancient times still had a level just received, both in attitude and in thought (receptive attitude and receptive mind) (Santoso, 1977: 27).
Development of human knowledge and culture in ancient times can diruntut far back, even before the 15th century BC, especially in the stone age. Knowledge at that time was directed at practical knowledge, ie knowledge of direct benefit to the community. When the start of the stone age can not be determined with certainty, but experts found the stone age lasted for millions of years.
As the name implies, the stone age, in those days people use stones as tools. This is evident from the findings of such an ax used to cut splitting. In addition to using the tools made of stone men of that age are also using animal bones. Tools made from animal bones among other functions resemble needles used for sewing. The discovery of the objects of the relics in the stone age is a proof that human civilized creatures able to be creative to overcome the challenges of the natural surroundings.
Along with the development time, the objects used were making progress and improvement. The discovery was made based on observation, and may proceed with trials without foundation, obey and error process. Finally, from a process of trial and error, which takes hundreds or even thousands of years of refinement making this happen development tools that are used, so that people find the manufacture of good tools, the result would be a stronger and better. Thus tersusunlah knowledge know-how. In the form of know-how that the findings were passed on to subsequent generations.
Cultural development occurs more quickly after man discovered fire and use in everyday life. With the use of fire to keep warm, human dependence on the climate becomes less fire then also be used for cooking and equipment in the hunt. At a more advanced age later, meaning the fire becomes more important. Knowledge of heating and melting process paved the way in the manufacture of tools from copper, bronze and iron. In historical records, for example, iron tools were first used in the 15th century Iraqi BC (Brouwer, 1982:6).
More rapid development of knowledge occurred a few thousand years before Christ. This event occurs when humans are in the stone age youth. during the start of the revolution in the way humans live. Humans began to recognize the farm, know the life lived (persistent), build a home, preserving foods, start irrigation, and began to raise animals. At that time also comes the ability to write, read and count. With the ability to write, several important events can be recorded and can then be read by other people so it will be more rapidly deployed. Numeracy skills are also very supportive of the development of knowledge as a record of an event to be more complete with the relatively more precise data and more obvious.
According to Anna Poedjiadi (1987:28-32) the development of knowledge in ancient times has been seen in some nations, such as Egypt, Babylonia, China and India. There is a mutual relationship between the development of thinking influence in the region with other regions. Manufacture of bronze tools in Egypt 17th century BCE to give effect to that applied in the development of Europe. The Chinese 15th century BC have also developed techniques Dinastii equipment at the time of the Shang bronze, while iron equipment as a weapon of war has been known in the 5th century BC on the Chin Dynasty. India gives great surnbangsih in the development of the mathematical discovery of the decimal number system. Buddhism was adopted by king Asoka, the third emperor In Mautya, has donated a number system became the starting point in the development of the number systems of modern times: India players even have invented the wheel for the potter in the 30th century BC. Unfortunately the advanced civilization that went extinct in the 20th century BC, whether caused by natural disasters or by war.
In general it can be stated that the knowledge in ancient times marked by the presence of five faculties, namely (1) knowledge based on experience (empirical knowledge (2) knowledge by experience it is accepted as fact by the receptive attitude of mind, and if there is a description of the facts, then information that is mystical, magical and religious, (3) the ability to find the natural alphabet and number system has been in development of human thought to the level of abstraction, (4) the ability to write, count, draw up a calendar based on the synthesis of abstraction is done, and (5 ) ability to predict physical events on the basis of previous events that have occurred, such as solar and lunar eclipses (Santoso, 1977: 27-28)
C. Ancient Greece (7 BC – 6 AD)
Ancient Greece is seen as the golden age of philosophy, because at this time people have the freedom to express ideas or opinions. Greece at that time regarded as a repository of science and philosophy, as the Greeks at that time did not believe lagii mythologies. The Greeks also can not receive experience based on receptive attitude attitude (an attitude of take it for granted), but cultivate the attitude of an inquiring attitude (an attitude which pleased critically investigate something). Later attitude that is the forerunner to the growth of modern science. Critical attitude is making the Greeks appear as famous thinkers of all time. Some philosophers of the period such as Thales, Pythagoras, Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle.
Ancient times include the time of the pre-Socratic philosophy in Greece. The characters are known as the first philosopher or natural philosopher. They look for the parent element (arche) is considered the origin of all things. According to Thales that water arche, arche Anaximandros argue that it `unlimited ‘(to apeiron). Arche was air Anaximenes, Pythagoras arches that number, and the arches Heraklitos fire, he also believes that everything is kept flowing (panta RHEI). Parmenedes said that everything was still not moving. (Lasiyo and Yowono, 1985: 52)
1. Golden Age of Greek philosophy
At the time of Pericles Athens was led by a philosophy of political activities can thrive. There is a class of people who are good at speaking (rethorika) called the sophists. They teach science to young people. the object of the investigation is no longer natural but man, as said by Pythagoras, man is the measure of all things. This was opposed by Socrates saying that the really good and is seen as objective values are held in high esteem by everyone. As a result of the speech Socrates was sentenced to death.
Socrates thought the results can be found in his Plato. In his philosophy Plato said: the reality of the whole world is divided into two open only to the senses and the world is only open to our ratio. The first world is the physical world and the other world of ideas.
Opinion was criticized by Aristotle in saying that there are humans that are concrete “ideas man ‘is not in fact”. Philosopher Aristotle was a realist, and his contributions to the development of science is huge. Donations are still used in science is about abstraction, namely rational activity in which a person gains knowledge. According to Aristotle, there are three kinds of abstraction, the abstraction of physical, mathematical abstraction, and metaphysical.
Who want to capture the notion of abstraction by removing individual elements to achieve the quality is the physical abstraction. While the abstraction at which the subject captures quantitative element by removing the element called qualitative mathematical abstraction. Abstraction in which one captures the essential elements to the exclusion of other elements called metaphysical abstraction. (Harry Hamersma, 1983)
Aristotle’s well-known theory is about the material and shape. Both are metaphysical principles, the principle that the material is not specified, while the form is the principle that counts. This theory is known as Hylemorfisme. (K. Bertens ,1988:11-16)
2. Helinistis and Roman period.
In the days of Alexander the Great has developed a transnational culture called Helinistis culture, because culture is not limited to Greece again in the Greek cities, but also the entire region that includes Alexander the Great conquered. In the field of philosophy, Athens remains an important center, but also develops other intellectual centers, especially the city of Alexandria. Roman expansion eventually extends to Greek territory, it does not mean denouement Greek culture and philosophy, because the Roman Empire was the door opened wide to accept Greek cultural heritage.
In the field of philosophy still growing, but at that time there was no philosopher who truly great except Plotinus.
At this time it appears some of these streams.:
a. Stoisisme
According to this understanding the universe is determined by the powers called Logos. Therefore, all events take place under conditions that can not be avoided.
b. Epikurisme
Everything made up of atoms kept in motion. Humans would be happy if you recognize this world and the arrangement should not be afraid of the gods.
c.Skeptisisme
They think that the field of theoretical man is not able to reach the truth. Their general attitude is skepticism
d. Eklitisisme
A general trend is taking various elements of philosophy from other streams without being able to achieve a genuine thought.
e. Neo Platonism
Understand who revived the philosophy of Plato. Character is Plotinus. The entire philosophy revolves around God as one. Everything comes from the `one` and want to come back to Him. (K. Bertens ,1988:16-18)
D. Middle Ages (6 M -15 M)
Middle Ages is a period of time that has to do with the history of the nations of continental Europe. Common understanding of the Middle Ages were associated with the development of knowledge is a long period starting from the fall of the Western Roman Empire in 476 AD to the emergence of the Renaissance in Italy.
Middle Ages (Midle Age) is characterized by a considerable influence of the Catholic religion and cultural development of the empire at that time. In general, the Romans occupied with religious matters without regard to worldly issues and science. In those appearing in the field of science is the theologians. The scientists in this period almost all theologians are so scientific activity associated with religious activity. In other words, scientific activities geared to support religious truth. Motto that applies to the science of this period was Ancilla Theologiae, man of religion. Therefore, since the fall of the Western Roman Empire until about the 10th century, in Europe there is no activity in the field of science that can be put forward that spectacular. This period is also known as the dark ages.
Toward the end of the middle of the century, some progress is visible in the community in the form of inventions. The discoveries include updates use plows farmers can reduce energy use. Started waterwheel used to grind corn.
In the 13th century there was also progress and updates in the field of shipbuilding and seafaring navigation. Ship supplies to make progress so that the ship can be used more effectively. Navigation tools were making progress anyway. Began to use the compass in Europe. Skill in making textiles and leather processing to make progress after a person familiar with the cotton spinner tool.
Another important progress during the middle of the century is the skill in papermaking. This skill came from China and was brought to Spain by the Muslims. In addition, people also have to know the printing and manufacture of explosives.
Unlike the situation in Europe is experiencing the dark ages, in the Islamic world at the same time experienced a golden age of science and technology. Civilization of the Islamic world, especially in the time of the Umayyads had found a way of astronomical observations in the 7th century AD, eight centuries before Galileo Galilei and Copernicus did. In the golden age of Islamic culture is also done translations, various works of Greece, and even the caliph Al-Ma’mun had established the House of Wisdom (House of Wisdom) in the 9th century AD
Development of science and technology in the Islamic world is rapidly made possible by the continuous observation and recording regularly as well as the encouragement and assistance of the kings who ruled. Thus for the first time in history, three important factors of politics, religion and science, are on one hand, the king or sultan. This situation is very advantageous further development of science. As long as 600-700 years of culture and science advances remain on the nations who are Muslims.
According to Slamet Iman Santoso (1997:64) the Islamic scholar donations can be classified in three ways, namely: (1) translate the relics of the Greeks and distribute it in such a way that knowledge is the basis for progress in the development of the Western world until now, (2) extend the observations in the field of medical science, medicine, astronomy, chemistry, earth science, and botany, and (3) affirm the decimal system and the basics of algebra.
Some people who made a major contribution in the development of knowledge and technology in the Islamic world such as A1 Khwarizmi, Omar Khayam, Jabir Ibn Hayan, Al-Razi, Ali Ibn Sina, Al-Idrisi and Ibn Khaldun.
Muhammad Ahmad AL Khwarizmi’s algebra book compiled in the year 825 AD, which became a standard book several centuries in Europe. He also wrote a book about ordinary calculation (arithmetics). The book is to pave the way in Europe to use the decimal method, which replaces the writing in Roman numerals. Khwarizmi luga has introduced two cubic equation in algebra.
Jabir Ibn Hayan (720-800 AD) held many experiments, including that on ktistalisasi, dissolving, sublimation, and reduction. In addition to conducting experiments, he also wrote, among others, about the process of making steel, metal refining, gives color to skin and fabric, how to make fabric waterproof, making way for hair dye. He also writes about the ink manufacturing, glass making, how to concentrate acetic acid by distillation. Mengeni elements he found a metal or mineral that consists of two essential elements that mercury and sulfur with a wide range of composition. Metal or mineral is different because of the different arrangement of its elements.
In the emerging field of medicine known names such as Abu Bakr Muhammad ibn Zakariya al-Razi or in Western countries known as razes (850-923 AD) and Ibn Sina or Avicenna (980-1037 AD). Razes very much to write a book, in antaranya100 books on medicine, 33 books on natural science, including alchemy, ll books on mathematics and astronomy, and more than 45 books on philosophy and theology. One of the results of his work is a medical encyclopedia titled continens. Meanwhile Ibn Sina also wrote books on medicine, named Al-, Qanun. This book became the standard book in medical science in Europe until ± 1650. (Santoso, 1997: 63). Additionally Abu’1 Qasim or Abu’1 Chassis wrote a medical encyclopedia, which include reviewing, surgery and shows the equipment used in that day {± in 1013).
Ibn Rushd or Averoes (1126-1198 AD) a medical expert who translated and commented on the works of Aristotle. From the writings of Ibn Rushd followed proved that evolutionism flow, ie flow believes that everything in the world was not created suddenly and in a state of completion, but everything happens through development, to finally incarnated in a completed state.
Other figures were also instrumental in the development of science in the Islamic world, especially in the field of geography is Al-Idrisi (1100-1166 AD). He has made 70 dikenall map of the area at that time to be delivered to the kingdom of King Roger II of Sicily.
The realm of social science, in the world of Islam is the name of Ibn Khaldun (1332 -1406 AD), whose full name is Abu Zayd Abdal-Rahman ibn Muhammad ibn Khaldun al-Hadrami. He is an expert on the history, politics, sociology, and economics, he is often regarded sebagii pioneering founder of the social sciences and sociology. Her work is a famous book called A1-Muqaddimah. In his book, he discusses the development of society and changes in society. As the inventor of a new science-society, Ibn Khaldun tried hard to be objective in describing the community rather than finding a cure for the “disease” of society (Baali, 1989:191).
In the view of Ibn Khaldun, social phenomena and laws to follow certain patterns, and by itself will result in certain consequences as well. It is said that the social laws not only have on individuals, but on all people. Social laws will apply equally to the public, although a separate space and time: Therefore, these laws are not influenced by anyone. A leader can not improve social conditions, that does not have the support of the community.
As the foundation stone of sociology, Ibn Khaldun uses many methods and theories to explain the factors that exist in society. For example, the colonized would mimic colonizing nation, because he felt that the victory due to the advantages, both technical and institution, and it should be followed so that the colonized also rriendapatkan success.
Principal ideas of Ibn Khaldun lies in `asabiyah or social solidarity into human nature that can not live alone. Humans are social beings, and therefore required a bond in the form of the state. Social solidarity is very strong in the nomadic community. State can be formed and be strong on the basis of this solidarity, but once formed bonds of solidarity diminished, because of the power that must be obeyed. Thus the goal of solidarity is power.
E: The Age of the Renaissance (14 M -17 M)
Renaissance revival era is marked as free thought from religious dogmas. Renaissance is the time of transition when medieval culture began to turn into a modern culture. This is the man in the days of man who misses free thought. Humans want to achieve progress on the results of their own efforts, not based on divine intervention. Discoveries of modern science ‘has been initiated in the Renaissance. Science progresses in this period is the field of astronomy. Famous figures like Roger Bacon, Copernicus, Johannes Keppler, and Galileo Galilei. Here are excerpts of the thinking of the philosophers.
l. Roger Bacon, argues that the experience (empirical) became the main base for the initial and final exams for all of science. Mathematics is a necessary condition to yield all knowledge.
2.Copernicus, says that the earth and all planets around the sun, so the sun at the center (heliosentririsme). This opinion is contrary to the general opinion from Hipparahus and Ptolemy who think that the earth as the center of the universe (geosentrisme).
3, Johannes Keppler, find three laws Brahe melengkapii previous investigations, namely:
a. That the motion of the celestial body was not moving to follow the trajectory circle, but it follows the motion of an elliptical trajectory. Elliptical orbit of all the planets.
b. At the same time, a link between the planet and the sun always crosses the plane of the same size.
c. In mathematical calculations proved that if the average distance of two planets A and B with the sun is X and Y, while the time for orbital meliintasi respectively P and Q, then P2: Q2 X3: Y3.
4. Galileo Galilei, make a telescope that most of the time and space to observe some events directly. He discovered several events important in the field of astronomy. He saw that the planets Venus and Mercury show changes as the moon, so he concluded that the planets does not emit its own light, but only reflects light from the sun (Rizal Mustansyir, 1996)
F. Modern Age (17 -19 M IV)
The modern era is characterized by a variety of scientific discoveries in the field. Development of science in the modern era is already initiated since the Renaissance. Such as Rene Descartes, known as the father figure of modern philosophy. Rene Descartes was also a mathematician. Discoveries in science is a system of coordinates. Additionally at this time there are also other philosophers such as: Isaac Newton, Darwin Caharles.
G. Contemporary Period (20th century onwards)
Among the special sciences discussed by philosophers, physics occupies the highest position. According to Trout (in Riza1 Mustansyir, et al., 2001) is seen as a fundamental physical science subject material containing fundamental elements that make up the universe. He also pointed out that historically the relationship between physics with philosophy seen in two ways. First, a philosophical discussion about the methods of physics, and in view of the substantial interaction between the physics (for example: on the material, the power, the concept of space and time). Second, the traditional philosophy of teaching that answered the phenomenon of material, power, space, and time. Thus, from the outset there was a close relationship between philosophy and physics.
Physicist famous 20th century was Albert Einstein. He claimed that nature is not finite and not infinite, but it also does not change the status of totality or are static over time. Einstein believed in the eternity of matter. This means that the universe is eternal, or in other words did not recognize the nature of creation. Dii side theory of physics, the theory of the universe, and others, Contemporary Period is characterized by the discovery of a variety of advanced technology. Communications and information technology, including the one that is progressing very rapidly. Ranging from the invention of computers, the various satellite communications, the internet, and so on. Other disciplines are also progressing rapidly, resulting in a sharper scientific specialization. Contemporary scientists know little things, but in depth. Medical science is getting sharper in the subspecialty or specialists and super-specialists, as well as other disciplines. In addition to the trend toward specialization, another trend is the synthesis between disciplines with one another, so that the resulting new field such as biotechnology, which today is known as cloning technology. (Rizal Mustansyir, et al., 2001)
Posted by PS at 14:41 Ichwan
sumber:http://ichwanparado.blogspot.com/2013/01/sejarah-perkembangan-ilmu-pengetahuan.html
fathurlanci2 